Role of Mutated Gene in the Evolution of Large Brained, Small-Jawed Hum

Role of Mutated Gene in the Evolution of Large Brained, Small-Jawed Humans The debate with-in the anthropology field has been heated over the evolution of the human and the events that have lead us to where we are now. One of the major questions that is debated is how did we, humans-large brained and small jawed, evolve from primates-large jawed and small brained. Interestingly enough, this debate is now being directed from outside the field; by biologists and plastic surgeons. On march 25, 2004, Doctors Stedman (and others) published their findings in Nature (VOL 428) under the title Myosin gene mutation correlates with anatomical changes in the human lineage. Their findings point to the gene myosin and its mutated form MYH16 and that the mutation that toke place some 2.4 million years ago as a major step in the development of a larger brain that we now as humans have. In this paper I aim to outline what they have discovered and point out some of the controversy surrounding the findings. It is not my goal to understand how the gene functions, but to rely on accepted judges conclusions that the gene is mutated but I will explain what this can say about the formation of bone structure. What the researchers found centers on the MYH16 mutation and the original myosin gene, a protein that builds strong muscular jaws. Myosin is a protein that works with other proteins to contract muscles, more importantly jaw muscles. The mutation of myosin, MYH16, causes a weaker bite. In their experiments they looked at macaque monkey and human genes to determine how this mutation worked. They found that the gene myosin only worked in the muscles of the head used for chewing and biting. The difference between the two subjects was... ...ary Source: Stedman, Hansell, et. al. Myosin Gene Mutation Correlates with Anatomical Changes in the Human Lineage. Nature, Vol 428, March 28, 2004. The Nature Publishing Group. www.nature.com/nature Secondary Sources: Associated Press. Gene Mutation Said Linked to Evolution. http://abcnews.go.com/wire/Living/ap20040324_1105.html Hopkin, Michael. Jaw-Dropping Theory of Human Evolution. http://www.nature.com/nsu/040322/040322-9.html Kreeger, Karen. Myosin Mutant Points to Human Origins. http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-03/uopm-mmp032204.php Ananthaswamy, Anil. Early Humans Swapped Bite for Brain. http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994817 Reuters. Scientists: Humans traded jaw strength for big brains. http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/science/03/24/science.brains.reut/index.html

Compare and Contrast a Life Raft, an Island, and Earth Essay

Survival is a key part of life in which humans have been attending to throughout our entire existence. As time progresses, technology and knowledge not only increases but also improves. Eventually, we develop to the point where our educational system has an important and crucial question where the students are asked to compare and contrast a life raft with emergency supplies in it, a moderately sized island, and Earth itself. The three subjects have a number of similarities and differences; however, some are obviously more important than others. Read Also:  Topics for a Compare and Contrast Essay There are quite a few similarities between a life raft, an island, and Earth, all of which are just as obvious as the differences. Each of the three can carry things in them. The Earth and an island hold many different things on their land, including us humans. A life raft can, and is meant to, hold things such as emergency supplies or people in it. More obviously, each of the three is in a solid state of matter. Also, each of them has its own gravitational pull or influence. Earth has its own gravitational pull; so naturally, things that are located on Earth are influenced and affected by gravity. Lastly, each of them (can) support life. Earth, itself, is supporting life for a huge number of organisms and beings at this very moment. An island supports not only a number of plants, but also some animals and other organisms as well. A life raft, or life boat, is meant to help people safely distance themselves from a larger ship or boat disaster. Because a life raft has emergency suppli es, it will support human life until they run out. With similarities, there are also differences within the life raft, island, and Earth. While Earth and the island is an ecosystem supporting a vast and diverse number of species and organisms, a life raft is merely just a lifeless boat. The island and Earth are also part of each other, while the life raft is more of an object that is used by humans. The island is  literally a part of Earth, they are one thing. However, the life raft is not a part of Earth; it’s more like a Third Party Program that is used along with the main server or program. This also leads to the fact that the life raft is man-made, rather than being organic like Earth or an island. Obviously, we humans did not create Earth. And in normal circumstances, humans also do not create islands. Comparing and contrasting a life raft with emergency supplies, a moderately sized island, and Earth is truly a random and odd thing to do. However, doing so would prove that everything has at least a similarity and difference. Where there is a similarity, there is also a difference. It could be an obvious and blatantly clear similarity or difference, or it could also be a well and critically thought comparison. In conclusion, the man-made life raft seems to be the center of difference and the background character of similarities.

Lean And Six Sigma Methodologies - 1775 Words

Introduction Lean and Six Sigma are two different methodologies originally designed to meet the demands of manufacturing companies. Lean was born in the premises of Toyota and their production system. Lean is about eliminating waste to improve processes. Six Sigma, on the other hand, is a management methodology that seeks to eliminate variation in processes (Goldsby Martichenko, 2005). Where these two methodologies meet, is in their final goal of process improvement. With two different ways of implementation, these methodologies complement each other in practice, this is why many organizations choose to make a multidisciplinary implementation, and apply both Lean and Six Sigma to achieve better and longer results. As organizations’ demands constantly change, they are also continuously looking for ways meet this demand and improve their business. This is one of the reasons why the Lean and Six Sigma methodologies have escalated in a significant manner, dabbling into markets that are not the ones they were created for in the first place, as healthcare. This paper attempts to present two different implementations of these methodologies. Mayo clinic, an organization named as the best hospital of the United States; and Caterpillar, an icon of the construction and mining equipment manufacturing. What is Lean? The Lean methodology is a process management methodology that examines and enhance processes from the customer perspective. It looks to create proceedings that createsShow MoreRelatedPerformance Improvement: Lean or Six Sigma Essay1193 Words   |  5 PagesPerformance Improvement: Lean or Six Sigma Performance improvement is a constant focus in healthcare today to reduce costs and meet the demands of value-based purchasing and healthcare reform. Healthcare organizations have implemented various performance improvement methodologies to reduce operating expenses while improving quality and patient outcomes (Betka, 2012). Many healthcare organizations have turned to performance improvement methods such as Lean and Six Sigma to manage their costs, productivityRead MoreLean Six Sigma Principles On Improving Turnaround Times At A Busy U.s. Infusion Clinic1074 Words   |  5 PagesResearchers Lamm, Eckel, and Amerine desired to explore the effectiveness of Lean Six Sigma principles on improving turnaround times at a busy U.S. infusion clinic. The team implemented a three-phase study in which they first analyzed turnaround times for a period of 12 months. Next, they implemented several Lean tools including a five-day Kaizen event to identify potential ways to reduce turn around times from 60 to the new goal of 45 minutes. During the last phase the researches implemented strategiesRead MoreLean Six Sigma And The Effects On Operations And Technology Strategy1484 Words   |  6 Pages Process Analysis on Lean Six Sigma and The Effects on Operations and Technology Strategy Lauren M. Nanney East Tennessee State University Abstract Do not indent/ need to add headings/subheadings, etc Process Analysis on Lean Six Sigma and The Effects on Operations and Technology Strategy Over the course of the past three decades, American industrial organizations have sought a wide variety of management programs in hopes to improve their competitivenessRead MoreComparing Lean And Six Sigma Alpha Sigma1640 Words   |  7 PagesResubmit question 2. Contrast and compare lean and six sigma sigma teams. You may want to consult your Six sigma Sigma textbook (The Six sigma Sigma Black Belt Handbook by McCarty, Daniels, Bremer and]] [Gupta) since it contains extended discussions about these teams. Thinks of what skills team members need to have, how the teams are organized, what kind of problems they solve. For instance, lean teams may solve sporadic problem while six sigma sigma team may solve chronic problems that may not beRead MoreManagement Philosophy : Six Sigma1020 Words   |  5 PagesSix Sigma is one of those words that most individuals don’t use in their everyday vocabulary. What is Six Sigma you may ask? Maybe it is some kind of product, a slogan or ma ybe it s a company. If you thought it was any of these things, you re wrong. Six Sigma is actually a management philosophy. It was developed by engineer Bill Smith (while working at Motorola in 1985). Six Sigma sets extremely high objectives, collects data, and analyzes results which reduces defects in products and servicesRead MoreLean Teams And Six Sigma1546 Words   |  7 Pagesmanagement system, six sigma permeates all aspects of an organization. Many of those who have had the opportunity to participate in six sigma projects have experienced the transformation of six sigma principles and concepts into the fabric of the management system of the companies in which they are employed by witnessing improvements that will have continuous, long term influences within the company. This is accomplished by creating alignment within the company leadership. Six sigma offers a way ofRead MoreSix Sigma Articles Essay1668 Words   |  7 Pagesdescribe what are the differences between the ory/application/focus factors when comparing six sigma, lean and theory of constraints. Please elaborate your answer without writing article sentences, use you own words and demonstrate a comprehensive analysis. Making a comparison with a simple standpoint, the six sigma’s methodology is used to incremental improvement of existing processes, as it is the six sigma main tool, DMAIC. This tool is a strategy based on statistical quality, which gives muchRead MoreBusiness And Process Conditions That Required The Application Of A Lean Transformation816 Words   |  4 Pagesa. What were the business and process conditions that required the application of a Lean Transformation? Seat Belt manufacturer needed continuous improvement of their processes and to maintain a sustainable growth of the company even during the times of economical depression of 2002-2003. They identified four processes within the company that needed improvement: - Disruption of their delivery times - crowding of released work within company’s premises - Periods of low work and/or overtime hoursRead MoreLean Six Sigma And Its Application1594 Words   |  7 Pagessummary: Lean Six Sigma is a widely known approach used for improving the processing and quality of the products and services in an organization. Some of its major functions include improving quality, removing waste, reducing variation and organization. There have been several studies that focus on the combination of Lean Enterprise and Six Sigma. These applications mainly focused on the private industry more than the government industry. Hence, the research aims to explore the strategy of Lean Six SigmaRead MoreOrganizational Quality Improvement1310 Words   |  6 PagesMethods and information technology for quality improvement Various methodologies exist for the integration of quality improvement strategies into performance improvement measures. With concepts of total quality management (TQM) and quality improvement (QI) being introduced to health care organizations; administrators have had to decide which methodology is right for the organization. There are numerous methodologies: Six Sigma, Lean, and Customer Inspired Quality. Each has its own pros and cons.

A Theory Of Counseling Children - 1421 Words

Kelly Jean Tucker HPC 5220 Theoretical Paper The following paper describes a theory of counseling children that incorporates aspects of developmental theory, person-centered , reality, and acceptance-commitment therapy (ACT). Main Philosophy: This theory is specifically geared towards working with children in a developmentally appropriate manner. A therapist must assess the developmental/individual needs of the child, the environment, and how the two interact. There are many levels in an environment such as hierarchies and roles that exist in a family. A therapist must conceptualize how these levels interact and how these interactions impact the child. For example, a child may be taught collectivistic values at home but is encouraged†¦show more content†¦A child’s thoughts and feelings may change as a result of therapy but thoughts or feelings do not need to change before overt behavior changes (Twohig, Hayes, Berlin, 2008, p.172). Key Concepts: This theory asserts that â€Å"children, from an early age, respond to thoughts and feelings as if they were real† (Twohig, Hayes, Berlin, 2008, p.175). In congruence with Acceptance-Commitment Therapy, a full range of thoughts and feelings are considered healthy and that it is okay to be vulnerable and experience psychological pain (Twohig, Hayes, Berlin, 2008). Similar to Erickson, crises are viewed as an opportunity for growth (Wenar Kerig, 2006). Thoughts and feelings are not viewed in all-or-none terms such as â€Å"good/bad† or â€Å"rational irrational† (Greco, Barnett, Blomquist, Gevers, 2008, p.190). All children have the potential to live well-adjusted lives. Maladjustment is a mismatch between a child’s developmental level, their needs, and their environment. A child may have the potential to succeed but is not currently in an environment that meets their particular needs. Children’s behavior, therefore, is a way of fulfilling th eir needs. Reality therapists support this assertion (Corey, 2010). For example, a child may be acting out in school due to not feeling accepted by their peers. The child may tease other children in retaliation or act out to receive negative attention from peers and adults. This theory also incorporates Piaget’s cognitive

The Disappearance of the Bees Essay - 1537 Words

The Disappearance of the Bees If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man. The quote above is often attributed to Albert Einstein but was actually believed to have been said by this brilliant man is not true. It was originally written down by Maurice Maeterlinck in his work â€Å"The Life of the Bee† in 1901(Exploring the origins of quotations). But the position being taken today is not about who actually truly made this quote but the truths that can be attributed to it. The warning in which it represents and the fear of its possibility, since it has been noticed that the Bees are disappearing.†¦show more content†¦Another event more recently was reported in Pennsylvania where Keepers reported a 53% loss of their hives. But what made this event most serious was the loss of 1/3rd of bee hives within the United States as a whole. This event appeared to have no particular rhyme or reason for this cause and no singular circumstance could be pointed to as an exact cause of such mass destruction of one species that is crucial to food production w ithin the United States (Honey Bees and Colony Collapse Disorder). Value of the honey bee: The honey bee is vital to an estimated $117 billion annual production of crops through pollination within the United States more than a half of the food that humans consume has a correlation with the bee either directly or indirectly. The USDA reports the following food products would be immediately damaged if no bees were available to pollinate: This information is only the tip of the iceberg dealing only with crop worth/food but does not mention the incalculable amount bees have on the ecosystem as a whole (Vanishing Bees). Many plants rely heavily on bees as their main pollinator to reproduce. The main fear is that even though many flowers also rely on mammals and other insects to assist in the pollination process, bees are the biggest and most vital source of this life cycle. As the bees disappear the reproduction process of many plants does not happen as efficiently thus less plants are produced, thisShow MoreRelatedSummary : Bee Disappearance 1708 Words   |  7 PagesPaper: Bee Disappearance Seven years ago honeybee colonies were reported to be dying en masse. They were dying from multiple causes, and these bee disappearances reflect an infertile landscape and a dysfunctional food system. The problem is that in the last 50 years bees have been dying and we’re planting more crops that require bees pollination. Colony Collapse Disorder, Varroa mites, and our farming practices attribute to these disappearances of our most important pollinator, bees. Bees provide usRead MoreHoney Bee Extinction Essay1735 Words   |  7 PagesChace Jensen Dr. Butler ENGL 1103 16 January 2012 A Small Extinction, A Big Problem Albert Einstein once said, â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man† (â€Å"Einstein Once Said†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). After careful thought on this matter, this can be a scary concept to process. Millions of years have passed with the honey bee gracing the earth, and in fact, the honeybee isRead MoreAnalysis Of The Article Honeybees And Flowers 899 Words   |  4 Pageswriting this to respond to the article you sent me and provide some insight on the issue. Honeybees and flowers are interdependent. Honeybees’ primary objective is to collect pollen from plants, which they use as protein to reproduce. As a byproduct, bees also create honey, which powers their flight muscles and provides warmth for the hive during winter. A secondary function for honeybees is pollination, which is the fertilization of plants in order for them to bl ossom. The process involves the beeRead MoreRowan Jacobsen s Fruitless Fall : The Collapse Of The Honey Bee And The Coming Agricultural Crisis Essay937 Words   |  4 Pageswrote insects play an important role being the â€Å"sexual handmaidens to the flowering plants (Jacobsen, pg. 21)†. And now, these handmaidens especially the honey bees are declining globally. Jacobsen’s objectives in writing Fruitless Fall: The Collapse of the Honey Bee and the Coming Agricultural Crisis, are the world’s bees disappearance, pollinator crisis, and the overall the incline of human agricultural crisis. I believe anyone who read Fruitless Fall can be honked to the book. It is an easyRead MoreHoney Bees And Its Effect On The Agricultural Industry1465 Words   |  6 Pages such as bees, has increased dramatically. Declines in honey bee colony health were provoked further in the 1980s with the arrival of new pathogens and pests. The arrival of Varroa and tracheal mites into the United States during the 1990s created additional stress on the honey bee population. These various mites attack both adult bees and the developing honey bee larvae and can transmit viruses. Since honey bees are a critical link within United States agriculture, their disappearance has beenRead MoreThe Effects Of Colony Collapse Disorder ( Ccd ) And Other Factors That Are Causing The Bee Population978 Words   |  4 Pagesone in three bites of food was pollinated by a honeybee. ii. We won’t starve without honeybees. 1. Most staple foods (wheat, rice, and corn) aren’t pollinated by animals. 2. Apples, avocados, onions, and berries are pollinated by animals and without bees their price would go up and they would become rarer. 3. Almonds would go extinct without honeybee pollination. iii. â€Å"If all pollinators went extinct, we probably wouldn’t starve, but we’d all have scurvy or some other vitamin-deficiency disorder.†Read MoreHow important are bees in our lives? Bees are small flying insects, buzzing around with its600 Words   |  3 PagesHow important are bees in our lives? Bees are small flying insects, buzzing around with its painful stings which always make people afraid and annoyed. What generally relate with bees are their roles in pollination and producing honey and beeswax. So it seems that bees might be nothing to human as it’s easy to find substitutes for honey as flavoring. However, this perception is mistaken. Without bees, aftermath. Over the past decade bee populations have been dropping drastically. A 40% loss of honeybeesRead MoreThe Use Of Pesticides, Global Warming And Climate Change972 Words   |  4 PagesBees are a critical species in today’s world to keep the homosapien population alive. Without bees the stability of many ecosystems are at risk, we must understand and protect the honeybee. As they pollinate around $40 billion in produce each year, there has been increased attention by the scientific community to aid in the large amount of population decline. Research has mainly focused primarily on honeybees, the most common pollinator in the U.S, but they are not the only ones at risk. IncreasedRead MoreThe Environmental Effect Of Deprivation912 Words   |  4 Pagesresponsible for production of over half of the food we digest. In Vanishing of the bees, the documentary examines the sudden departure of honeybees when the agriculture business had a crisis because a condition known as Colony Colla pse Disorder took full effect and killed billions of bees. While in â€Å"Vanishing Biodiversity†, Karaim discusses the loss in biodiversity conservation on farms. Both sources deal with the disappearance in species. Although pesticides main use is to kill pests that destroy foodRead MoreA Beehive Is A Complex And Intricate â€Å"Superorganism† That1502 Words   |  7 PagesA beehive is a complex and intricate â€Å"superorganism† that consists of different types of bees, each doing a different job, to create, grow, feed, and protect the colony. Queen bees, workers, and drones provide each a special function and unique responsibility to maintain their colony and hive. Whether it is the Queen bee laying to grow new bees, the drone bees mating with the Queen or the worker bees performing many other functions, the beehive operates like a well-oiled machine. The beehive itself

Moral or Immoral free essay sample

Moral or Immoral Should people have the power to act as God? Should scientific studies be limited? Some people would say yes, while others would say no. There are countless debates that are constantly going on in the biological field. Two examples of these highly debated topics are stem cell research and euthanasia. In the U. S. today, many people are questioning the morality of stem cell research and euthanasia. Stem cells are cells that can renew themselves. They have the ability of making an organism regenerate its tissue. Many people disagree with stem cell research because it involves the human embryo, therapeutic cloning, and preimplantation. To initiate the creation of a stem cell, the procedure requires the use of one of these two options. Scientists can either choose to terminate a human embryo, or use a process called therapeutic cloning. This has led to a disagreement in the U. S. today. Many people argue that a human embryo is a life and deserves to live. These people are for the â€Å"pro-life movement† as opposed to the supporters of stem cell research who are for the â€Å"pro-choice movement. Stem cell research supporters argue that this research can have great medical value. Therapeutic cloning is when the human embryo is grown for fourteen days. After the fourteen days pass, its stem cells are removed and used to develop an organ. It does this by growing with a human tissue or organ. Using its stem cells, it can convert into an organ or a piece of human tissue that could be trans planted into a person. This is not complete termination of the embryo, but many can argue that the embryo is not fulfilling its â€Å"destiny† by growing into another human being. However, there is another option that could suit both sides of the argument, a process called preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis is a procedure that is performed on embryos before the implantation. According to Princeton University, implantation is the natural process in which a fertilized egg becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus of placental mammals. Tests using embryonic screening can create a line of stem cells without developing the actual embryo. Lately, stem cell research has been very successful; however, many disputes are still being held on the morality of the issue. The termination of a human embryo, therapeutic cloning and preimplantation are all possible procedures that can lead to medical breakthroughs; however there are other controversies besides stem cell research. Euthanasia is defined as the taking of a life, either by the request of the patient, the patients family, or for the patient’s benefit as determined by others who are empowered to make that decision. Voluntary euthanasia is a terminally ill patients decision to spare them great pain and agony. Non-Voluntary euthanasia is when a patient has not given any permission or consent. Intentional euthanasia occurs when a patient is killed through euthanasia by action, or euthanasia by omission. Euthanasia by action is when a patient is killed by lethal injection. Euthanasia by omission is when a patient is intentionally not given the essential nutrients the body needs to survive. Euthanasia brings up questions for many people. Oregon and Washington are the only states in the U. S. where euthanasia is legal. Lawmakers in other states have avoided allowing euthanasia because there is concern of patient abuse. Supporters of euthanasia insist that the government is allowing inhumane suffering by not permitting euthanasia. However, the laws are still in place to protect the patient who has not, or cannot, make their requests clear. Stem cell research and euthanasia are only two of the many topics being disputed between pro-life and pro-choice activists. The question of what is right and what is wrong can only be answered to a certain degree. Stem cell research can lead to a medical breakthrough, but many people are saying its just wrong to disturb human DNA. Euthanasia supporters are begging for change, while the lawmakers stand their ground with the law. Morals will always be a suitable question as biological advancements are made.

Journal summary free essay sample

Organizational Assessment : Effectiveness vs. Efficiency This journal is being chosen related to the Organizational Theory, Design and Change for chapter 1 about the Organization Effectiveness. i. What was the aim of the study? An organization had its own goals and mission. There were many ways that could be implement in order to make sure that the organization will achieves whether it short or long term goal. The term effectiveness and efficiency was always being the indicator of the organization performance. This study will determine the differentiation, features, proximities or values of the effectiveness and efficiency. There were some people believe that there is no difference between effectiveness and efficiency, but according to Mouzas (2006), each of these terms have their own distinct meanings. ii. Model that being used in this study. As stated in the chapter 1, under â€Å"How Does an Organization Create Value? † there is value creation. Value creation takes places at three stages which are input, conversion and output. We will write a custom essay sample on Journal summary or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page To differentiate the meaning of effectiveness and efficiency, the authors of this study has adapted a model from Frey and Widmer (2009) regarding effectiveness and efficiency. Figure 1 Chain of effects Based on Figure 1, we can see that efficiency information provides different data compared to effectiveness. As we can see, under the effectiveness it concern about output, outcome and impact. It measures the on how the organization will achieve their goals or the way outputs interact with the economic and social environment. For the efficiency aspect we can see it concern about the input and output. According to (Low, 2000), the efficiency will measure on how successfully the inputs have been transformed into outputs. iii. What is the result of the study? This study was using the obstructive measure approach where the authors had collected finding from other resources. In order to come out with conclusion, they had gathered many findings related to the effectiveness and efficiency. They highlighted few points such as the meaning, differences, characteristics, and how it will be dependence toward each other. According to the study by Pinprayong and Seingthai (2012), they suggest that return on assets (ROA) is suitable measure of overall company performance, since it reveals how profitable organizations assets are in making revenues. Total assets turnover will measure the ability of a company to use it assets to efficiency generate sales; therefore it can be treated as effectiveness. As conclusion, they had come out with formula of: Organizational performance = effectiveness x efficiency; iv. Limitations In some cases effectiveness concept is being used to reflect overall performance of the organization, since it is a broader concept compared to the efficiency. It gets challenging to explore the efficiency factor if it is included under effectiveness assessment v. Conclusion The characteristics of effectiveness and efficiency Figure 1. 1 shows that the organizations cannot survive without effectiveness policy. Even though the organization is an inefficient but effective, organization still have a chances to survive. Usually, organization that in high effectiveness and high efficiency are well known as high performance entities. Effectiveness is a much broader perspectives, which touch about quality, value, satisfactions, output and environments. Efficiency is on how well the input was transformed into output. Effectiveness and efficiency, they influence each other. In order to achieve all the organizations goals and had an excellence in competitive performance, organizations should find way on increasing the efficiency and effectives evenly. 2. Impact of Employee Adaptability to Change Towards Organizational Competitive Advantage This journal is being chosen related to the Organizational Theory, Design and Change for chapter 4 about the Basic Challenges of Organizational Design i. What was the aim of the study? A change in the most understandable way is the moving process from one point to another. It’s not a must to do things for an organization, but in order to make sure the organization in can compete and achieve the better performance, changes should be made. Although changing is the good things to do, but it have own limitations and it cannot easily made, so that why this study had being conducted. The purpose of this study is to know how the competitive advantages have the significant effect on training and development, empowerment and maintaining in the organization. It is stated in this study, that their aim is to identify and to discuss the reasons why employees didn’t easily adapt the changes than those eager to adapt the change in any case. ii. Model that being used in this study. There were three variables that being used for this study which are training and development, empowerment and culture. These variables will tested in order to know the relationship of the variables towards the employee adaptability to change which is a moderator and competitive advantage being a dependent variable. iii. What is the result of the study? Before come out with a conclusion, data must be collected and analyze. For this study they had distributed 80 questionnaires towards employees within service sector organizations and others. On the basis of the data conducted from the person engage in the executive, supervisors and staff position. Table 2. 1 Descriptive Analysis The findings were analyzed by using descriptive statistics. Based on the result gathered by questionnaires, the authors will use the correlation of the statistical interference in order to identify the hypothesis had being developed this study and relationship between the discussed variables. Above we can conclude that training development is good for the employee to adapt the change and organizations leads it competitive advantage. For the empowerment, they score greater mean that training development which is good to the employee. Lastly, from the table its show that good culture has influence on the organizational competitive advantage. iv. Conclusion In order to make an organization competence, they should a changing process toward the better environments. But, changes are not easily made. They will be some people that against on the changing process. That is why, the adaptability is important. As being stated in this study, employee adaptability is more dependent on the parallel activities that preceded along with the others activities in the organization and these activities helps the employee to perform more enthusiastically and impatient to demeanor any challenge or adapt any change whatever it will be. 3. Organizational Culture and Its Themes This journal is being chosen related to the Organizational Theory, Design and Change for chapter 7 about Creating and Managing Organizational Culture. i. What was the aim of the study? Organizational culture is a about sharing value and norms that will help on controlling organizational members interactions within each other and with people outside the organization. As written in this journal, culture within an organization acts as a critical role in the organizations everyday operations. In order to validate this statement, a study about an organizational culture had being conducted. The purpose of this study is to know in deeper what is an organizational culture, models related, themes and the importance toward an organization. ii. Model that being used in this study. As being stated earlier, organization culture can be described as a set of theory consist of values, beliefs, and understanding that members share in common. It also helps in the ways of thinking that could help while making decision. From the perspective of Andrew Brown (1995, 1998), the organization culture: â€Å"Refers to the patters of beliefs, values and learned ways of coping with experience that have developed during the course of an organization’s history, and which tend to manifested in its material arrangements and in the behaviors of its members†. One of those models that being adapted in this study is the Onion Diagrams, by Hofstede. He was dividing culture into four layers which consist of symbols, heroes, ritual and values. Figure 3. 1 Onion Diagram Based on the Figure 3. 1 above, the core level in the culture level is value; values are intimately connected with moral and ethical codes which determine what people ought to be done. The second level is rituals, which is describing the collective activities that considered essential. The next level is heroes. According to Deal and Kennedy (1982), hero is a great motivator; heroes are also persons who possess characteristic which are highly prized. Symbols are the most overt element of culture and are the gestures, objects, words or acts that signify something different or wider from the others, and which have meaning for individual or group. iii. The importance of this study In order to have a rapid organization development, organization culture can be used as a tool to help the organization reach success. It also can be a management tool, which managers can use some values to control and direct employee behavior. In addition, the importance of the organization culture toward the development of an organization seconded with statement from Campbell and Stonehouse (1999) said: â€Å"Culture can also have influence on; employee motivation; employee morale and ‘good will’; productivity and efficiency; the quality of work; innovation and creativity and the attitude of employees in the workplace†. iv. Conclusion As stated in this study, they highlighted that in order to achieve a successful culture, managers shouldn’t ignore organizational culture and its themes, because culture can be used as a competitive advantage during organizational development, and a strong culture (one in which beliefs and values are widely shared and strongly held) can also offer many advantages, such as cooperation, control, communication or commitment. 4. Re conceptualizing Organizational Role Theory for Contemporary Organizational Contexts i. Aim and introduction of the study. The purpose of this study is to know deeper regarding the organizational role theory and to identify what are the issues related to the organizational theory that will limit it usage. In this study, they were several issue that being listed out regarding organizational theory. Based on Katz and Kahn (1966) state that the assignment of work-roles prescribes the behavior of employees are expected to comply, so that they are able to perform their speci? ed tasks and duties effectively. He also mentions that organizational role theory (ORT) is help to de? ne a â€Å"role-set† for the individual, employee and determine the speci? c role-behaviors the employee. Beside that according to According to Biddle (1986), George (1993), and Smithson and Stokoe (2005), the diminishing usefulness of classical ORT can be traced to three part. There are the limitations in its role-taking, role-consensus and role-con? ict assumptions. The theoretical issues discussed indicate about the development of ORT has failed to keep the change in the organizational context. Data Collections This research consists of two-stage qualitative data gathering process. The ? rst stage included the questionnaire-survey to a sample of employees and the second stage data collection process to collect the data required to answer the second research question. The uses of semi-structured interview allowed the researcher to strengthen the investigation. The respondent reported that charity, education, social are the important impact on their working life. iii. Result Summary To simplify the results for this study it can be divided into two summaries: Research Summary 1 Although the research findings supported the relevance of the â€Å"work-family/work-life balance† literature to ORT, there was evidence that at least four other categories of non-work roles needed to be considered for the effective management of human resources. In terms of work-roles, academics and practitioners must remain aware of the work-roles currently recognized by classical ORT. In terms of work-family roles, they need to recognize the specific impacts of the work-family interface, and become aware of the limitations of â€Å"family-friendly† practices that serve only to enable workers to spend more time at work Research Summary 2 There were two things that will be highlighted in these summaries. First, the recognition that employees (both actual and potential) are multi-faceted is incorporated into the model in three important ways. In the pre-employment phase, the model now requires the employer to attain a level of understanding of the potential employee’s family and non-family roles that they need to enact for their self-validation, self-recognition and overall wellbeing. In the initial employment phase, it requires that employers consider the interaction between the most important non-work-roles (as identified by the employee) and the work-roles to be bestowed on them. iv. Conclusion Finally it can conclude that, this research suggest the employees perceived had a signi? cant impact on their working-life. ORT needs to incorporate for an effective HR policy framework. It also recommends that further investigation into ORT’s role in the workplace and further exploration. 5. Organization Theory and Methodology This is a summary of the article â€Å"Organization Theory and Methodology† by Michael C. Jensen in Harvard Business School. In this research the researcher find the relation between positive and normative theories, the importance to the research effort of the choice of tautologies and definitions, the nature of evidence, and the role of mathematics. The author mentions that, the major reason for the early successes of operations research and its later failure can be traced to the nature of the theories. In addition, According to Alchian (1950), organization need not assume that agents are engaged in purposeful activity for the models to work. Besides that, Hayek (1979) emphasizes most of the complex phenomena that make up human culture were never consciously invented by any individual and much of human culture is still not well understood. Furthermore, there is evidence in Chandler’s (1962), work that the organizational innovations that led to the large, integrated, multi-divisional firms in the early 1900’s were accompanied by substantial innovations in accounting practices. Moreover, the behavior of the organization is the equilibrium behavior which made up of maximizing agents with diverse and conflicting. The Construction of a theory of organizations involves creating a theory that describes the equilibrium behavior of these complex contractual systems where the individual agent is the elementary unit of analysis. On the other hand, the choice of tautologies or definitions has a large impact on the success or failure of research efforts. As a conclusion, the researcher says that the competition in research is an important element for innovation and makes progress at product markets. He also mention that, ideal process described about the important aspects of the environment, monitoring and bonding technology that derive a theory that is consistent with those contracts.